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YOUR QUESTIONS ANSWERED: F.A.Q. 31
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Yoga and Sufism QUESTION: What is Sufism and how is it related to
Yoga? ANSWER: Genuine Sufism is a form of Yoga which was
introduced into the West from India and subsequently established itself in
Muslim-dominated countries. The Afghan-born scholar Idries Shah
(1924-1996) is regarded by many as the foremost authority on Sufism. A proliferous writer, several books of whom were designated
"Book of the Year" by the BBC, Shah was responsible
for many or most of the Sufi-related teachings circulating in the World
today. The main problem is that Westerners, in particular, who
constitute the majority of consumers of Sufi literature, have very little
knowledge of their own history and even less of the history of the East.
Without such knowledge no proper understanding of historical events and their
interconnection is possible. In this context, it is imperative to understand that even
among specialists with Western academic training there are very few - if any
- who are experts on Yoga, Middle Eastern and Ancient Greek Spirituality,
simultaneously. This results in important connections and clues being
overlooked or misinterpreted. We shall therefore attempt to present a view of Sufism which
in our opinion is more complete, more culturally and historically accurate
and, in consequence, closer to truth than the view formed in their mind by
most readers of Sufi literature. Points in common We cannot here more than mention some key Sufi concepts such
as: oneness of God; God as Light, Intelligence, Consciousness, Truth (compare
Yogic concepts of Samvid-Prakasha, Chit, Parama Satya); Pole, North Star
(Pole Star), World Axis, Unseen Master (compare Skambha,
Dhruva, Akshara); three
Means of knowledge: direct perception, reason, tradition (compare Anubhava or Pratyaksha, Anumana and Agama or Shabda);
the concept of a veil that envelops the unawakened
Soul, preventing him from seeing the Truth (compare Maya). Seven breaths or levels of consciousness (compare the Seven
Chakras, Sthalas, Spheres or Worlds); the concept
of "Friend" or Spiritual helper and guide (compare Bandhu); the concept of "Point" as an important
device for the transmission of Spiritual teachings (compare Bindu or Vindu as a symbol of
Shiva, the Supreme); the "Path of Blame" in which the seeker
deliberately provokes and meekly bears other people's contempt and abuse
towards his own person in order to purify himself and facilitate his
Spiritual advancement (compare the Pashupata Vrata); the concept of human consciousness as a
mirror-like substance which, when cleansed of impurities, regains its natural
capacity to shine (compare Bimba or Vimva in Shvet. Up., etc.); Dhikr or repetition of a sacred word or prayer (compare
Mantra-Japa or Japa
Yoga), etc. All of the above is present in the Scriptures of India
(Puranas, Upanishads, Vedas, Pashupata
Sutra, Yoga Sutra) and much of it has already been touched upon elsewhere on
this Web site. What is of importance is that, on the basis of these common
points, the close connection between Sufism and Yoga becomes obvious and
undeniable. The origin of Sufism Sufi literature describes the Persian mystic Mansur al-Hallaj
(10th century CE) as one of the greatest Sufi masters and the greatest martyr
of the Sufis. Another Sufi mystic and philosopher was Suhrawardi
(12th century). A third mystic and poet, Jallaludin
Rumi (13th century), is similarly celebrated as
a great disseminator of Sufi teachings. The earliest of these three, Al-Hallaj
was born into a Magian family. Now Magianism, the tradition of the Magi or Magicians, is the
ancient, pre-Islamic religion of Persia (Iran) which is closely related to
Yoga. Shiva, the Supreme Being of Yoga, is known as "the Greatest
Magician" (Maha Mayin)
from earliest times: "The origin of the World lies in the Magical Power
of the Supreme Lord (Maheshvara)", says the Shvetashvatara Upanishad. Yogis themselves have always
been regarded as powerful Magicians on account of their magic powers (Siddhis) resulting from Spiritual Practice. Be that as it may, the fact is that al-Hallaj
travelled to India in search of true Spiritual
Knowledge where he received the Yogic teaching of the Unity of Man and God.
Upon his return to Persia, he was sentenced to death by the Islamic
authorities for spreading this teaching and died with the words: "O
Lord! Let me be grateful for the gift which I received, for it has enabled me
to see what others cannot see". Suhrawardi of Aleppo (North
Syria) openly declared in his writings that his teachings originated in the
East. Indeed, his teachings of Illumination to the effect that the entire
Universe is a manifestation of Divine Light, are found in the oldest of
Indian scriptures where God is said to be Light (He is even known by several
names denoting "Light": Dyaus, Deva, Maha Prakasha,
etc.) and to have manifested the World out of Himself. As for Rumi himself, Idries Shah dedicates to him an entire chapter entitled,
"Our Master Jallaluddin Rumi".
He was born in Balkh, in the former Hindu Kingdom
of Afghanistan, which Idries Shah describes as a
"bastion of ancient Wisdom teaching". His teacher was Sanai of Afghanistan. Rumi is
not only regarded as one of the greatest mystics and poets of Sufism but also
as founder of the "Dancing Derwishes". In
his poems, Rumi says, "What shall I say, O
Muslims? I am neither a Christian nor a Muslim; I have given up duality and
seen the World as One." Also, "I looked into my heart and there I
saw Him (God or Truth). He is nowhere else to be found". Clearly, he had
followed the Yogic method of inward contemplation and developed the Vision of
Universal Unity (Shiva Samadhi). The following key Yogic teachings are found in the writings of
these great Sufi Masters: 1. God is Light and
Intelligence. 2. The human Soul, who originated in God undergoes a series
of Reincarnations or repeated rebirths in various bodies until his final
Liberation and Return to God. 3. The Highest
Spiritual realisation is the Unity and Identity of
the human Soul with God. 4. This Supreme Realisation is to be achieved by means of inward
contemplation or Meditation. It is a well-known Sufi teaching - espoused by Rumi and others - that man at first worships all kinds of
things; later he adopts a particular religion; and in the final stages of
Spiritual development he no longer says which religion he follows or even
whether he worships God at all: having recognised
his own identity with God, he can hardly say, "I worship Myself"! In consequence, we can expect no clearer indication that the
great Sufi Masters were Yogis, than what was intimated above. Nor must we
forget that from the 8th century onwards, Sufis operated in hostile and
dangerous territory, under the repressive regimes of Islamic clerics, where
they and their followers were often subjected to persecution and pogroms. From Ancient India to Persia and beyond Arabist interpretation
likes to derive “Sufi” from the Arabic word for wool. However, this
derivation is not supported by independent evidence. Nor does it explain “Tasawuf” for Sufism. The truth of the matter is that,
like the tradition it designates, the term “Sufi” can only be understood on
the background of the linguistic, cultural and theological realities that
obtained in the West and South-West of Asia in medieval times. There is no evidence for the existence of the word
"Sufism" or "Tasawuf" in
Arabic, prior to the 8th century CE. The word is clearly derived from the
Greek "Theosophia" or
"God-wisdom" and was adopted by Arabic-speakers at the same time as
"Philosophia" was adopted as "Falsafa", soon after the Muslim Arab invasion of
Persia in the 7th century. Thus "Sufi" is nothing but the Arab version of Greek
"Theosophist" or, short, "Sophist". Idries
Shah himself uses the term "Theosophist" in his work "The
Sufis". "There is no age in which there is no great
'Theosophist'", he declares. Now, the Sophists - whether we derive their name from "Theosophists" ("God-knowers", "Seekers after Divine
Knowledge"), "Philosophists" ("Lovers of Wisdom",
"Seekers after Truth") or simply “Sophists” (from “Sophos”, “Wise Man”)
- were known in the Hellenistic World by the name of "Gnostics",
from "Gnosis", "Knowledge". Socrates, for example, must be admitted to have been not only
a Philosopher but also a Theosophist and a Gnostic even though, in the
materialist World of today, his teachings are officially presented as purely
intellectual and moral in nature without any Spiritual or metaphysical
content. One of the salient characteristics of Socrates was his method
of imparting wisdom by means of philosophical and logical debate. In this
sense, he was also a Sophist, that is, one who was in possession of, and
taught, wisdom ("sophia"). Thus, he must
be admitted to have been a “Sophos” or “Wise
Man”. At any rate, the Greek word "Sophist" or
"Gnostic" in the above sense is the exact translation of Sanskrit
"Jnaani" or "Man of Higher
Knowledge" (from "Jnaana",
"Knowledge"), a title by which the Wise Men of India have been
known from the time of the earliest Upanishads. The Greek-derived name "Sufi" ("Sophist")
was adopted by Persian and Arabic-speakers simply because Greek was the
language of literature, science and Spiritual Wisdom in West Asia at that
time. The fact that no
Arabic word existed to describe a philosopher, philosophist,
theosophist or sophist, and the need was felt to introduce Greek-derived
terminology, demonstrates the non-Arabic origin of both Philosophy (Falsafa) in general and Theosophy or Sufism (Tasawuf) in particular. The great reverence with which Sufis regarded the Ancient
Masters of Greece, Persia and India is well known. For example, the eminent
Spanish-born Sufi philosopher Ibn Rushd (1126-1198), known as Averroes
in the West, was a keen student of Greek (Aristotelian) thought. He famously
declared that "Everything has been already perfectly examined by the
ancients. All that is required of us is to go back to their books and see
what they have said in this connection". Now Ancient Greek and Persian Wisdom itself has much in common
with its Indian counterpart. Indeed, as we shall presently demonstrate, it is
mostly derived from the latter. The erudite psychologist and scholar, Professor Carl G. Jung,
who spent most of his life studying Western and Eastern mysticism, observed
that "the Hellenistic syncretism of the third and fourth centuries
showed traces of Indian thought (Apollonius of Tyana,
Orphic-Pithagorean secret doctrines, the Gnosis,
etc.)" (Psychology and Religion - Yoga and the West, published in Prabuddha Bharata, Calcutta
1936). Close connections between Ancient Egyptian and Indian thought,
in particular, psychology, have similarly been discerned by another great
scholar, Joseph Campbell. However, as he correctly observes, "every line
of Yogic literature betrays a depth of psychological insight surpassing
anything of which we have knowledge from Egypt" (The Masks of God:
Oriental Mythology, 1962). This lends itself to the conclusion that Ancient
Egyptian thought has its roots in India, the land of philosophers and wisdom
seekers (Jnaanis) par excellence. Nor is there any mystery regarding the ways in which such
influence might have come about. Indian merchants, sailors, masons,
metalworkers, artisans and storytellers contributed in many ways to the
spread of Indian culture as, indeed, must have Indian slaves captured by the
Arab Muslim armies who repeatedly attacked and invaded India following the
rise of Islam. The main channel for the transmission of Yogic teachings is,
of course, that of oral instruction and secret initiations, which naturally
leave little or no historical trace. However, another conduit that
constitutes more palpable evidence is literary translations of Yogic texts. The Story as a medium for Spiritual
Instruction The Sanskrit word "Kathaa"
means "conversation", "discussion", "debate" as
well as "tale" or "story". It derives from the root
"Kath", "to declare", "inform",
"explain", "describe", "show",
"instruct", "order", "command". "Kathana" means "narration",
"information", "oral
instruction". A more technical term employed in Yoga is "Chummaa" or "Chommaa",
that is, instructional aphorism or narrative designed to stimulate the
seeker's intuition and facilitate his Spiritual development. Animal fables and stories in general (Kathaas)
are a timeless method for the transmission of both Spiritual and worldly
wisdom ("Niti", "wise conduct of
life") which is well-documented in India from earliest times to the
present day (Upanishads, Puranas, Mahabharata,
Ramayana, Pancha-Tantra, Simhasana
Dvatrimshika, Hitopadesha,
the stories of the Tantric and other Spiritual
Masters (Nathas), the stories of Shri Ramakrishna, Ramana Maharshi, etc, etc.). From a Yogic point of view, Spiritual stories are not, of
course, meant to be consumed in the form of written collections but told
directly by the Master (Guru) to the disciple (shishya,
chela) at the appropriate time and in the
appropriate context, as part of certain psychological and Spiritual
processes. For this very reason, the vast majority of these stories must
remain outside the domain of public knowledge. The fact that such stories, even when they are recorded, are
less publicised in the West than their
"Sufi" counterparts does not mean to say that they do not exist or
that they are in any way inferior or less enlightening than the latter. After
all, Indian Spirituality has produced more Enlightened Souls than any other
system on Earth! Unfortunately, the advent of Islamic and Christian Colonialism
in India, followed by Secular (anti-Spiritual) Socialism, has caused Indian
Spirituality to lose the royal patronage it had enjoyed for millennia. Today,
Genuine Yoga has to struggle against a rising tide of materialism while
simultaneously lacking the support of both left-wing intelligentsia and
oil-rich financiers enjoyed by the "Sufi" enterprise. The millions of priceless ancient works (the official estimate
is 5 million) slowly disintegrating away in dusty Indian libraries, temples
and private homes without even being catalogued, edited, translated or
published speak for themselves. Nevertheless, we know on the basis of historical evidence
that, "Kalila and Dimnah",
a collection of fables and one of the earliest Arabic literary works, was
translated in the 8th century CE by Ibn al-Muqaffa from a 6th century Persian work which in turn was
a translation of a much earlier Sanskrit original, known as "Pancha-Tantra", written in about 100 BCE by a
learned South-Indian Brahmin of the name Vishnusharman. The Arabic translation of the "Pancha-Tantra"
was subsequently translated into Greek, Latin and other Western languages.
Similarly, the Sanskrit Yoga Sutra and Samkhya
Sutra were translated into Persian and Arabic about the year 1000. As another example, the celebrated fables of Aesop (4th-5th
century BCE) are generally regarded as "Greek" simply because they
were written in that language. The truth of the matter, however, is that they
were compiled in Asia Minor (Turkey or Persia) and could well be Indian in
origin if we consider the following facts: 1. India was the World's largest nation, indeed,
infinitely larger than Greece, hence we may
logically infer that her literary output was of similarly copious proportions
in relation to that of Greece. 2. The literary and philosophical achievements of Ancient
Indian authors (Panini's Grammar, the Upanishads,
etc.) remain unsurpassed by any other nation down to this day. 3. The influence, economic, cultural and Spiritual, India
has exercised on her neighbours to the East and
West until her invasion and occupation in the Middle Ages by Islamic forces.
Indeed, even when India had fallen under the control of British Colonial
powers, her by then declining Spirituality was still capable of inspiring the
thinking minds of the Western World (Arthur Schopenhauer, Victor Hugo, Rudolf
Steiner, Annie Besant, William Blake, Helena Blavatsky, etc.). It is quite natural for a civilisation
of the calibre and magnitude of India to have
exercised some influence on its neighbours. If
Indian Spirituality had penetrated as far East as China, Indonesia, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Mongolia and Japan, we may safely assume that some of this must have
reached India's neighbours to the West, too. A recent scientific study (published in "Antiquus", June-July 2005) has established the
Indian origin of the medieval European tale of "Iosaphat".
The original was the thousand-year old story of Lord Buddha's life. Hailing
from North India (Nepal) the Buddha's (or Bodhisattva's) story was translated
into Persian (as Bodisavi) in the 6th-7th century
and subsequently into Arabic (Budhasaf, Yudasaf, 8th century), Greek (Ioasaph)
Latin (Iosaphat) and other European languages. Thus, by the time the story reached 11th century Europe, the
Buddha/Boddhisattva - who taught that, "From
Yoga (or Meditation) arises Wisdsom, therefore, let
a man strive to increase his Wisdom [by Meditation]" (Dhammapada 282) - had become a Christian saint of the
name Iosaphat! If the Buddha was turned into a Christian by 11th century
Europeans, he or his teachings could equally have been claimed by Persian or
Arab "Sufis" at about the same time or even earlier. Be that as it
may, while it is clear that Indian stories did not always survive in their
original form, their Indian origin and adoption by Western nations - from
Persia to Arabia and Europe - cannot be reasonably denied. That Indian culture was well known among the educated classes
in the Islamic World, is evidenced by the writings
of early Islamic authors. Thus Ibn Sina or Avicenna (980-1037), a prominent Persian
philosopher and physician from Central Asia, relates in his autobiography
that his own father and brother would often discuss Indian philosophy,
geometry and arithmetic. Ibn Sina's
own teachings were largely based on the Yogic doctrine of the Universe as a
reality emanated by God out of Himself by means of Soul, mind and body. It is a matter of common knowledge that thousands of medieval
Arabic works were based on earlier Greek manuscripts. What is less known or publicised is that many of these works refer to
arithmetic as "Indian calculations" ("hisab
al-Hindi") and what currently goes by the name of "Arabic
numerals" was known to Arabs as "Indian figures" ("arqam al-Hind") which were "created by
Indian philosophers". As Ibn Khaldun
states in his "Muqqadimah" (written in
1390), "the Arabs first learned about science from the Indians
along with their figures and methods of calculation, in the year 776 CE
(156 Hegira)". What is essential to observe here is that this
transmission of Indian knowledge took place centuries before the time of Suhrawardi and Rumi and had
plenty of time and scope to provide the cultural background necessary for the
rise of "Sufism". King Khosro Anushirvan and the secret of “Islamic culture” The role of Persian culture in the spread of Eastern
Spirituality to the West is well known to historians. For example, the cult
of the Indo-Persian Saviour God Mithra
(the “Invincible Sun”) enjoyed such popularity throughout the Roman Empire as
to establish itself as the state religion by the second half of the 3rd
century CE and retained that status until its replacement by Christianity.
The role of Persia in the development of “Islamic culture”, on the other
hand, is less well known. This is due partly to a general lack of interest in
history, partly to a deliberate attempt by left-wing and Arabist
historians to promote Islam as a unique phenomenon bordering on the
mysterious and the miraculous. Knowledge of basic historical facts, however,
will quickly debunk this myth. An important figure in the history of Persian Spirituality is
the Sassanid King
Khosro Anushirvan of
Persia (531-579). Under his wise
rule the city of Gondeshapur
(southwestern Iran) became an important center of learning and home to many
renowned physicians, philosophers and scientists. So great were King Khosro’s tolerance and thirst of knowledge that the
members of Plato’s Athenian Academy sought refuge at his court when their
school was closed by order of the Christian Emperor Justinian. During Khosro’s reign the great physician and minister Bozorgmehr (Burzoe)
was sent to India with the task of contacting the brightest minds of that
country and make Indian wisdom available to the Persian people. One of Bozorgmehr’s remarkable achievements was the translation
of the famous Pancha-Tantra and other ancient texts
from the original Sanskrit into Persian. Incidentally, the Ancient Greek historian and geographer, Strabo, informs us that centuries before Bozorgmehr’s journey to India, following Alexander the Great’s conquest of Persia, an Indian Yogi (called Kalanos by the Greeks – after his custom of greeting
people with the word “kalyana”, “luck”) was
persuaded to accompany Alexander all the way to Persia. Apparently, it was
Alexander’s famous teacher, Aristotle himself, who had counselled
him to make contact with Yogis during his expedition to India. Evidently,
interest in Indian Wisdom had enjoyed a long tradition not only among the
Persians but among the Ancient Greeks, too.
Unfortunately, the Muslim Arab invasion of Persia in 652 CE
brought an abrupt end to the Sassanid Dynasty.
Persian culture fell under the control of the new Arab rulers. Under Islamic
rule, the cultural centres of Gondeshapur
and other Persian cities were moved to Baghdad, the new Capital of the
Islamic Empire or “Khilafat”. Thus the Muslim ruler Kalif Mamun (813-833) founded his famous "House of
Wisdom" at Baghdad for the “advancement of ancient lore”. It was under
the new Islamic regime that hundreds of Greek, Persian and Sanskrit works
were translated into Arabic. Although it has become fashionable in certain circles to
interpret such wholesale adoption of ancient knowledge as an indication of
Islamic tolerance, it is important to understand that all cultural activity
under Islamic rule was in reality carefully monitored by the religious
authorities. The fact is that, while hundreds of ancient works were indeed
translated into Arabic, many more were not. Some were suppressed or destroyed
and even those that were translated were often edited to suit Islamic beliefs
about truth. What is
conveniently forgotten by pro-Islamic historians and their political and
financial sponsors is that most such translations were works on medicine,
astronomy and science, while very few dealt with non-Islamic religion and
culture. So much for “religious tolerance” under Islam! Nor must we overlook the political motives behind this
unprecedented translation movement. Had Islamic rulers sought to prohibit all
non-Islamic knowledge, this would have resulted in a devastating uprising of
the subjugated nations against Islamic occupation. The Muslim rulers were a
small minority who could ill afford to provoke the anger of the enslaved
nations. Also, their rudimentary nomadic culture could not match that of the
subjugated locals. In consequence, their immediate concern, if they were to
remain in power, was to establish control over the local cultures. The translation of important, mainly scientific works into
Arabic, therefore, served a dual purpose: (1) to convey the impression that
Islam was a tolerant, sophisticated and knowledge-friendly religion
(although, as we have shown, this tolerance was in practice highly selective)
and (2) to gradually take over and control all non-Quranic
knowledge. As soon as this was achieved, a cynical programme
of systematic suppression and elimination of such knowledge began to be
enforced by the Islamic authorities from the 11th century onwards. Mathematics, logic, philosophy and other “Western sciences”
were eventually rejected as non-Islamic. Schools teaching such subjects were
closed down and teachers were persecuted, imprisoned or murdered in the same
way as they had been, centuries earlier, in Christian-dominated Europe.
Sufism itself was one of these foreign influences and was never fully
accepted by the Islamic authorities except as a token of “religious
tolerance”. In the final analysis, therefore, far from showing true
tolerance, Islam ruthlessly took over and used ancient knowledge and culture
to promote its own dominance over other traditions. Meanwhile, however, the fact is that Philosophy (Love of
Wisdom) in general found its way into the Islamic world as "Falsafa" and the Yoga Sutra and Samkhya
Sutra were translated into Arabic about 1000 CE, while traditional,
instructional stories from India had long passed into Persian – and
subsequently, Sufi – folklore. This fact is important for a number of reasons. Had the Quran
been capable of satisfying the Spiritual needs of the thinking men of
Muslim-occupied Asia, there would have been no need for such translations.
Evidently, they were translated into Persian and Arabic precisely because
there was an interest in such works. And the interest in them could only have
arisen if a more general knowledge of the teachings contained therein was
already present among those nations. The above also demonstrates that Spiritual knowledge reached
the world of Islam not by any supernatural means as many bogus “Sufis” claim
but by historically documented, conventional channels of communication. In
short, these facts alone are sufficient to explain many of the developments
in the Arabic and Persian speaking world, including the appearance of Sufism
or "Tasawuf". What is relevant to the
purposes of the present discussion is that much of the knowledge conveyed to
the Islamic world via Persia was evidently of Indian origin. The “Simurgh in
China” Yogic influence on Sufism, in particular, is nowhere better
illustrated than in a Sufi story. In his work, "The Sufis", Idries Shah informs us that, "the 'Simurgh' [a mythical bird] is a code-word for the
development of Consciousness by means of 'China'". "Search
after Truth, be it even in China", is a sentence that every Sufi has on
his lips, tells us Shah. In support of this, the following passage is given
from "The Parliament of Birds" by Attar (1150-1229): "The Simurgh appeared once, out of the darkness, in
China"... "Therefore, it is said that one must look for Wisdom even
in China". Now Spiritual enigmas and riddles have been used in India from
Vedic times (see Rig Veda, I, 164; I, 152,3; Atharva
Veda, VII, 1; XI, 8, 10, etc.). The use of secret language ("Sandhaa-bhaashaa") as well as coded poems and songs
as an integral part of Spiritual Practice (Saadhana)
has been known to Yogis from times immemorial. Sufism, therefore, can teach
us little about "code-words" symbolic of Spiritual realities. So, let us briefly analyse Attar's
story from a Yogic perspective which, as will presently become apparent, is
more complete and therefore clearer. Thus we may derive both the Arabic word
"Syn" and Persian "Chyn" from the Sanskrit word "China"
(pronounced as "cheena") which is only
natural if we consider that India is closer to China than either Persia or
Arabia and, therefore, Indians would have been the first users of that name. Moreover, the Sanskrit word "China" may, for
Spiritual purposes, be etymologically derived from "Chi" (Chee) which in turn comes from the verbal root "Ki", "to observe", "perceive",
"fix the gaze or concentrate upon", "seek for",
"investigate", "search through", "enquire". In
consequence, it may be treated as synonymous with "Chintana",
that is, "thought", "reflection",
"consideration", "contemplation", "meditation",
as well as with "Chit", "consciousness",
"intelligence", "wisdom", a derivation which it does not
have in Persian or Arabic. To better understand the rich Spiritual symbolism of this
Sanskrit term we need only mention the famous "Chintaamani"
of the Mahabharata and other Scriptures, the "wish-fulfilling
jewel" or "thought-gem", a mythical precious stone said to
yield its possessor all desires. In Yoga, Chin-Mudra, the
"Mystical Seal of Awareness" is a hand gesture used in rituals and
secret initiations. "China" or "Chinaachaara"
(China-method) itself has the additional meaning of a certain tantric ritual (also known as "Pancha
Makara" - "The Five M's") designed
to bring about Spiritual Awakening in the initiates. As for the Simurgh itself, "murgh" simply means "bird". Mythical birds
symbolic of Enlightenment represent a well-documented theme in Indian
Spiritual texts from the times of the Vedas and the Upanishads. In keeping with this timeless tradition, the renowned Yoga
Master of the 10th century, Utpaladeva of Kashmir,
compares the Divine Self that appears out of the initial darkness of
meditation - which is nothing but a conscious entrance into the depths of
one's unconscious - with precisely such a mythical bird: "Hail to You!
Most Excellent Swan gliding through the skies of your devotees'
minds"... "May my unswerving devotion nourish me with the sweet
essence of Your Bliss so that I may grow into a bird with mighty wings!" (Shiva Stotravali
(14:19 and 7:4). In the "Stavachintaamani"
(note the word "chin" in the title) another great Yogi and
poet, Bhatta Narayana
(9th century), sings: "Obeisance to the Source of Supreme Peace (Shiva),
the Great Swan Whose Body shines due to its excessive whiteness and Whose
Unique Abode is the purified heart of the Enlightened Ones!" The symbolism of this mythical bird pervades all levels of
Indian culture. Thus, according to an ancient belief, already found in the Shukla Yajur Veda, the swan has the ability of extracting milk from a mixture of milk
and water and drink it. Indeed, among other things, swans are capable
of the astonishing feat of extracting salt from sea water and expel it
through their nostrils. In Spiritual terms this symbolises
the ability to distinguish between Truth and un-Truth. The title of
"Swan" also designates a class of Yogis who have attained a state
of detachment and freedom from material desires. It is beyond dispute that the Indian motif of the mythical
(and mystical) bird is as ancient as it is rich in Spiritual symbolism.
Suffice it here to add that the Sanskrit word "Hamsa",
"Swan", especially in its inverted form "Sa-Ham" means
"I am He" (or, as al-Ghazali put it,
"I am the Truth"), a mystic chant used by many Yogis in their
meditations. Nor must we assume that the mythical bird symbolic of
Enlightenment must be a swan. Among other mythical birds with deep roots in Indian
culture and religion we may enumerate the following: the Indian Cuckoo or Kokkila (a symbol of Spring and regeneration of
life), the Chaataka Bird (a kind of
cuckoo said to drink water straight from the clouds) and, above all, the Peacock
(Mayura). A truly magnificent bird, the Peacock not only is native to
the wood and bush lands of India but has been a sacred symbol of divinity and
immortality for millennia. In line with this age-old tradition, the Yogic
posture "Mayuraasana" (Peacock-posture)
is credited with rendering the human body strong and long-lived. In the tradition of Shiva, the Lord is known as "the
Blue-throated One" (Nila-Kantha) on account of
His throat turning blue on the occasion of His swallowing the poison of
ignorance from the Primeval Ocean in order to save the World. The peacock,
which also has a blue neck, is similarly credited with being capable of
eating and digesting poison as well as being immune to snake bites. Indeed,
it is said to eat snakes. According to Buddhist Scriptures (Jatakas),
the Buddha himself is said to have lived as a pious peacock in a former life,
and the same texts mention the belief that the eating of peacock flesh
renders one immortal. Last but not least, the famous Indian Maurya Empire (321-185 BCE) was named after the peacock (mayura). At all events, the Indian (South-Asian) peacock must be
regarded as the original prototype for the fabulous bird encountered in many
mythologies from that of Ancient Greece (Phoenix) to China (Feng or Feng-huang). Indeed, medieval
Islamic (Persian) representations of the “Simurgh”
clearly identify it as a peacock or similar long-tailed bird of the pheasant
family which is native to South and South-East Asia, and not to Arabia. The peacock in the Indian tradition is said to dance at the
approach of rain. Similarly, the Persian "Simurgh"
is said to live near water. Water, in Yoga, symbolises
Life due to its life-giving properties; it symbolises
Consciousness because it has the capacity to reflect light; it symbolises entrance into deeper states of consciousness;
and it stands for a Higher Reality because it falls from heaven. Water,
therefore, is one of the factors linking the Peacock with the "Simurgh" (and, for that matter, with the Swan, which
is a water-bird). Another important fact that appears to have escaped the expert
eye of Western scholars and "specialists" is that Persian "Murgh" and Sanskrit "Mayura"
are, linguistically speaking, closely related, sharing as they do the primary
component elements "m", "u" and "r". Furthermore, the peacock in India is sacred to the God Murugan - a manifestation of Lord Shiva, the Supreme
Being - whose name is even closer to Persian "Murgh".
On analysis, therefore, it becomes evident that the two traditions are
identical in their essential aspects, the Indian one clearly preceding its
"Sufi" counterpart. It follows from the above that, while the assertion to the
effect that "Wisdom, Truth or God must be searched even in China"
makes poor sense in Arabic, Persian or even English, it becomes perfectly
clear in Sanskrit: (“Wisdom arises from Meditation, therefore,) look for
Wisdom in Meditation". Or, as Scripture puts it: "The
Supreme is to be attained by means of Chintaa
(inward contemplation)" (Maitri Upanishad
4.4 etc.). Indeed, this is the interpretation offered by Shah himself: "China
in both Persian and Arabic is a code-word for the Meditation System and the
Sufi teaching method", he declares. Now we know why! Another problem or series of problems that arises here is, Why
can Idries Shah not talk plain language but has to resort to such convoluted devices as the Simurgh-in-China story? Why does Shah ignore the Sanskrit
root "Chin" which, as the scholar that he was, he ought to have
been aware of? If - as Shah himself admits - great Theosophists have existed
at all times and in all countries, why does he systematically exclude Indian
Theosophists or Yogis, from his study of Sufism? Could it be that he
deliberately sought to suppress the evidence of the Indian origin of Sufism? The fact is that, simultaneously running with the hare and
hunting with the hounds is a common enough approach to sensitive issues,
especially among Islamic nations. The overall impression is that Idries Shah is attempting to appease the Arabist camp consisting of Islamic fundamentalists and
Arab nationalists by associating Sufism with Arabic "code-words"
while ignoring its obvious Indian connections. At the same time, however, in his exposition of Sufi
teachings, Shah consciously or unconsciously suggests to the reflective
reader that Truth is to be found in the Yogic practice of Meditation - as we
have just demonstrated in our analysis of the Simurgh-in-China
tale. Indeed, even on the assumption that Shah was innocent of any
anti-Indian agenda, he could not have given any more credit to Indian
Spirituality than he did. To openly admit the Yogic nature and origin of
Sufism, in the repressive World of Islam, would have amounted to signing
one's own death sentence. Being suspected of promoting "un-Islamic teachings" would
mean the end of one's career, public image and, possibly, life. For this very
reason, Sufism has had to be disguised as something else from the very
beginning of the Islamic era. Conclusion We have demonstrated that the teachings of Indian Yogis are
essentially identical to those of Sufis living and teaching in Islamic
countries from the 8th century onwards. However, while Sufis in the Islamic
World have often been persecuted and even murdered or publicly executed by
the Islamic authorities (as in the case of al-Ghazali,
Suhrawardi, etc.), the Yogis of India not only have
formed an integral part of the national culture but have been held in the
highest esteem by the entire population from times beyond memory. In the light of these facts it is difficult to see how Sufism
can be described as "Islamic". Rather, the probability is that it
originated outside Islamic culture, namely, in India and therefore
constitutes a fundamental aspect of Indian culture and Spirituality, while
being merely tolerated, and often openly opposed and repressed, in the
Islamic World. Historical evidence from the edicts of Emperor Ashoka to the writings of Ancient Greek and Roman
historians demonstrates the presence of Indian Spiritual teachers in the
Middle East at least from the 3rd century BCE onwards. The teachings of Greek
philosophers of the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, as well as the translation of
literary and philosophical Sanskrit texts into Persian and Arabic from the
6th to the 11th centuries, indicates the continuity of Indian Spirituality in
the region well into the Islamic era - for over twenty centuries in total. It is our firm conviction, based on extensive research on the
subject-matter, that Sufis were originally Yogis who
were forced to disguise themselves as Muslims in order to counteract the
excesses of radical Islam and continue the teaching activities they for
centuries had carried out in the region. This is the true explanation to the
deliberate mystery in which Sufis have always shrouded themselves. However, the circumstances that forced this excessive secrecy
upon Sufi activities arose long before the advent of modern information
technology. Modern methods of communication such as the Internet mean that
the disguise of Sufism as "Islamic Mysticism" is no longer
possible. Nor is it commendable, not least because it enables bogus
"Sufi Masters" to employ Sufi teachings as a means of converting
unsuspecting seekers to Islam. Worse still, it may be used to undermine and
subvert Indian Spirituality itself, by presenting "Sufism" as
superior to genuine Yoga. Indeed, our investigations of over thirty years
have revealed that almost without exception Sufi teachings in India and
elsewhere are being misused precisely in this manner. What becomes evident is that this policy of secrecy, though
justified in the past, ultimately goes against the true purpose of Sufism and
all true Spirituality which is to bring seekers away from the repressive
practices of established religion. After all, over a millennium of "Islamic
Mysticism" has done little to improve the situation of millions of
Persians, Arabs, Egyptians, Berbers, Indonesians and other Muslim-dominated
nations. The only way forward, therefore, is to speak the truth in
plain language and explain it again and again until it has been properly
understood, and defend it by all possible means against the anti-Spiritual
forces of state-sponsored beliefs. In the free and democratic World of today,
religious fundamentalism, whether Islamic, Christian or otherwise, cannot be tolerated
in any form or shape. The fact is that the great martyrs of Sufism did not die
preaching the Bible or Quran. They laid down their
lives defending the Yogic Truth of Spiritual Liberation and Unity with God.
From a Yogic perspective, to abandon the Supreme Eternal Law of Unity (Sanatana Dharma) and convert to Islam and other Western
faiths which are nothing but misguided deviations and countercurrents to the
Eternal Truth of Heaven, not only constitutes a clear symptom of Spiritual
degeneracy but also a grave insult to the sacred memory of the Ancient
Masters. The celebrated Saint and Prophet of Sikhism, Guru Nanak
(1469-1539), was a tireless seeker of truth who took great pains to visit the
Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina that he might see for himself what
Islam was about. In his devotional songs, Sufis are denounced for deriving a
living from donations and craving wealth and power instead of seeking
knowledge of God. Sufi Masters are exposed as impostors the true intention of
whom was to convert Hindus to Islam, while gullible Hindus are derided for
studying the Quran to please their Muslim Masters. Among the most
notorious “Sufi Masters” we may mention Moinuddin Chisti (1141-1236), a Persian-born Shia
Muslim adventurer who settled down in India (at Ajmer)
where he founded a “Sufi School” for the purpose of converting Hindus to
Islam under the guise of “Sufi Spirituality”. Equally notorious was Badiu-d-Din Shah-i-Madar who
settled down in Makanpur, near Kanpur,
and made many converts to Islam (A History of Sufism in Bengal, p. 19). It is quite clear that the fraudulence of bogus “Sufi Masters”
has been common knowledge among true men of Spirit for centuries and it is
beyond doubt that “Islamic Sufism”, in particular, is a thinly-veiled deception.
Sufism can only qualify as genuine if and to the extent that it unequivocally
acknowledges Yoga as the Supreme Spirituality of Unity with the Divine. The
adherents of any other kind of "Sufism" must be aware that their
beliefs, teachings or practices constitute a serious transgression against
the Spiritual Laws of the Universe and will not remain without consequence in
this World or the next. The following are some points worthy of
consideration by all true seekers: -
It must be beyond dispute that the original and true
Sufis were and are Yogis. -
In fundamentalist, Muslim-occupied countries where the
teachings of Yoga are repressed by the authorities, authentic Sufism is
indispensable for pointing genuine seekers to the True Faith (that is, Yoga
or Unity with the Supreme), without arousing the suspicion of the said
authorities. For this reason, Sufism in such countries has assumed the
appearance of an Islamic or Islam-based Spiritual movement. -
By contrast, in non-Muslim countries, Sufism is
perfectly unnecessary as Seekers can directly turn to the undiluted teachings
of Yoga itself, the True Spirituality which was revealed to the World by the
Supreme Being at the beginning of time. -
In the light of these facts, the question that
discerning seekers outside repressive Muslim countries must ask themselves
is, “what is Sufism doing in a country where the teachings of Yoga are freely
available?” The only rational answer
is that “Sufi” enterprises in non-Islamic countries like India, for example,
are plainly an offshoot of the global effort to convert Mankind to Islam. -
As most of the generally available information on
Sufism derives from books, students of Spirituality must ensure that they
know who the author of a particular work is and what his motives in writing
it are, before giving any credence to the information offered in such works. -
The authors of literature promoting “Sufism” outside
Islamic countries may be classified into three main groups: (1) left-wing
intellectuals who are in the business of promoting anything that helps to
subvert and erode the established social, political and religious order for
the purpose of replacing it with their own utopian systems, (2) Islamic
fundamentalists who misuse Sufi teachings for the purpose of converting
readers to Islam and (3) misguided souls who have failed to properly digest
and assimilate the authentic history and function of Sufism. -
The original and authentic Sufi Masters had the highest
regard for pre-Islamic traditions such as Yoga, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and
Paganism. This is absent in bogus “Masters”. -
Authors of propaganda literature on Sufism habitually
denigrate non-Islamic faiths, in particular, Yoga and Hinduism. -
One of the standard stratagems adopted by the “Sufi”
camp (including Idries Shah himself) when
confronted with the incontrovertible fact of Spiritual teachings found in
Hindu Scriptures, is to assert that such texts are “not as old as people
think”. The answer to this is that they certainly are not as recent as “Sufi”
apologists claim, either. It is generally accepted by historians of religion
that Yoga/Meditation-based systems were already established in India by the
second half of the first millennium BCE. Historical sources further support
the great continuity and antiquity of Indian Spirituality: see the writings
of the Greek geographer and historian Strabo (63
BCE-24CE) whose Geography, XV. 4 mentions an “Indian
Sophist” at Athens as well as the works of early Christian authors (2nd
century CE Hippolytus of Rome in his Philosophumena I.21 mentions the Hindu belief in “God as
the Light of Wisdom [or Consciousness]”). In any event, the textual analysis
of the Yoga Sutra, Upanishads and other texts containing Yogic teachings
indicates that they precede Islam and thus “Islamic Sufism” by many
centuries. The identity of the Soul with God Who is the Light of all lights
and its realisation by means of Meditation and
Knowledge represent key teachings in the earliest Upanishads such as Brhadaaranyaka and Chaandogya
(which go back at least to 500 BCE). Indeed, the principal Upanishads were
already ancient when Shri Aadi
Shankara wrote his Commentary (Bhashyam)
on them. In addition, they provide numerous quotations from even earlier
texts. In the light of these facts, the antiquity of Indian Spirituality
becomes indisputable. In consequence, any “Sufi” denying these facts is
automatically exposed as either ignorant or disingenuous. -
Another sure indication that a “Sufi” author or teacher
is disingenuous is the frequent use of Arabic expressions, technical terms
and “code-words” which are said to describe Spiritual concepts. The
discerning student must ask himself, “why Arabic”? Sufism is not an Arab tradition but one which arose in Persia.
The primary languages of Spiritual teaching in the region were Greek, Aramaic
and Persian. The language of Sufi Masters like Suhrawardi,
Rumi and al-Hallaj was
not Arabic but Persian, a language closely related to or even derived from,
Sanskrit, the classical language of India which for millennia has served as a
medium for Spiritual communication. It is not by coincidence that Sufi saints
and masters are known by the Persian word “Pir” and that even the Quran refers to Paradise by the Persian-derived word “Al-Firdaws”.
By contrast, Arabic was the language of Muslim invaders from the south. To
portray Arabic as the language of Sufism is a blatant distortion of facts
which must be identified and condemned as a deplorable form of Islamic Arab
cultural imperialism. -
Sufi tales often found in such literature may be
entertaining, but really serve the purpose of gently separating the reader
from his familiar patterns of reason and render him susceptible to an
uncritical acceptance of teachings the Islamic character of which the reader
may be unaware of until it is too late for him to distance himself from such
teachings. Alternatively, those who are too Spiritually
advanced to fall into the trap of Islam, but not evolved enough to directly
discern the True Faith, may develop a psychological dependency on such
stories and find themselves incapable of advancing on the Spiritual Path.
Such individuals may lose their way until they find true Spiritual Guidance
in the form of an authentic Yoga Master. -
Those who desire to become involved with Sufism out of
curiosity or other psychological reasons must consider that Spiritually as well as historically speaking, Yoga precedes Sufism. In the same way
as countries or nations are better understood by studying their history,
Sufism is best understood by studying Yoga first. As the great Sufi Averroes (Ibn Rushd) has said, “Everything has been perfectly examined
by the ancient Masters. All we have to do is to go back to their books”. Let
the sincere student, therefore, first study the writings of the Ancient Yoga
Masters who were the true Sufis and then worry about later literature on the
subject, if need be. See also THE TRUTH ABOUT ISLAM and DHARMATYAGA
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